Ruttner, F. Biogeography and Taxonomy of Honeybees (Springer, 1988).
Meixner, M. D. et al. Standard methods for characterising subspecies and ecotypes of Apis mellifera. J. Apic. Res. 52, 1–28 (2013).
Franck, P., Garnery, L., Celebrano, G., Solignac, M. & Cornuet, J. M. Hybrid origins of honeybees from Italy (Apis mellifera ligustica) and Sicily (A. m. sicula). Mol. Ecol. 9, 907–921 (2000).
Whitfield, C. W. et al. Thrice out of Africa: ancient and recent expansions of the honey bee Apis mellifera. Science 314, 642–645 (2006).
Dogantzis, K. A. et al. Thrice out of Asia and the adaptive radiation of the western honey bee. Sci. Adv. 7, 2151 (2021).
Franck, P. et al. Genetic diversity of the honeybee in Africa: microsatellite and mitochondrial data. Heredity 86, 420–430 (2001).
Carpenter, M. H. & Harpur, B. A. Genetic past, present, and future of the honey bee (Apis mellifera) in the United States of America. Apidologie 52, 63–79 (2021).
Gonçalves, L. S., Stort, A. C. & De Jong, D. Beekeeping in Brazil. In The African Honey Bee (eds Gonçalves, L. S. et al.) (CRC Press, 1991).
Kerr, W. E. The history of the introduction of African bees in Brazil. South Afr. Bee J. 39, 33–35 (1967).
Magnus, R. M., Tripodi, A. D. & Szalanski, A. L. Mitochondrial dna diversity of honey bees (Apis mellifera) from unmanaged colonies and swarms in the United States. Biochem. Genet. 52, 245–257 (2014).
Tripodi, A. D., Tepedino, V. J. & Portman, Z. M. Timing of invasion by Africanized bees coincides with local extinction of a specialized pollinator of a rare poppy in Utah, USA. J. Apic. Sci. 63, 281–288 (2019).
Genchi García, M. L., Reynaldi, F. J. & Bravi, C. M. An update of Africanization in honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations in Buenos Aires, Argentina. J. Apic. Res. 57, 611–614 (2018).
Litvinoff, L. et al. Morphometric and genetic characterization as tools for selection of Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) stocks in an area of natural hybridization in Argentina. Front. Insect Sci. https://doi.org/10.3389/finsc.2022.1073999 (2023).
Porrini, L. P. et al. Southern limit of Africanized honey bees in Argentina inferred by mtDNA and wing geometric morphometric analysis. J. Apic. Res. 59, 648–657 (2020).
Porrini, L. P. et al. Current genetic diversity of managed and commercially produced Apis mellifera colonies in Argentina inferred by wing geometric morphometrics and COI-COII mtDNA locus. Apidologie 53, 61 (2022).
Fierro, M. M., Barraza, A., Maki, D. L. & Moffett, J. O. The effects of the first year of Africanization on honey bee populations in Chiapas México. Am. Bee J. (1987).
Moffett, J. O., Dale, L. M., Andre, T. & Fierro, M. M. The africanized bee in Chiapas, Mexico. Am. Bee J. (1987).
Quezada-Euán, J. J. G., Echazarreta, C. M. & Paxton, R. J. The distribution and range expansion of Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera) in the state of Yucatan, Mexico. J. Apic. Res. 35, 85–95 (1996).
Quezada-Euán, J. J. G. & Medina, L. M. Hybridization between European and Africanized honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) in tropical Yucatan, Mexico. I. Morphometric changes in feral and managed colonies. Apidologie 29, 555–568 (1998).
Quezada-Euán, J. J. G. A retrospective history of the expansion of Africanized honeybees in Mexico. J. Apic. Res. 46, 295–300 (2007).
Rubink, W. L., Luévano-Martinez, P., Sugden, E. A., Wilson, W. T. & Collins, A. M. Subtropical Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) swarming dynamics and Africanization rates in Northeastern Mexico and Southern Texas. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 89, 243–251 (1996).
Domínguez-Ayala, R. et al. Stock composition of northern neotropical honey bees: mitotype and morphotype diversity in Mexico (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Apidologie 47, 642–652 (2016).
Quezada-Euán, J. J. G., Pérez-Castro, E. E. & de May-Itzá, W. J. Hybridization between European and African-derived honeybee populations (Apis mellifera) at different altitudes in Perú. Apidologie 34, 217–225 (2003).
Gómez Leyva, J. F., Argüello Nájera, O., Vázquez Encino, P. J., Hernández Hernández, L. U. & Payró de la Cruz, E. Morphometric and molecular analysis (mtDNA) of honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) in the state of Tabasco, Mexico. Rev. Mex. Cienc. Pecu. 12, 1188–1207 (2021).
Guzman-Novoa, E. et al. The process and outcome of the Africanization of honey bees in Mexico: Lessons and future directions. Front. Ecol. Evol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.608091 (2020).
Medina, L. M. & Martin, S. J. A comparative study of Varroa jacobsoni reproduction in worker cells of honey bees (Apis mellifera) in England and Africanized bees in Yucatan, Mexico. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 23, 659–667 (1999).
Contreras-Ramírez, D. N. et al. Defense, hygiene and production behavior of Apis mellifera L. ecotypes in Tabasco, Mexico. Rev. Mex. Cienc. Agríc. 7, 1867–1877 (2016).
Arechavaleta-Velasco, M. E., García-Figueroa, C., Alvarado-Avila, L. Y., Ramírez-Ramírez, F. J. & Alcalá-Escamilla, K. I. Results and impact of research on honeybee genetics and breeding conducted by INIFAP in Mexico. Rev. Mex. Cienc. Pecu. 12, 224–242 (2021).
Payro-de la Cruz, E., Argüello-Nájera, O., May-Esquivel, F., Catzim-Rojas, F. J. & Gómez-Leyva, J. F. Selección de Apis mellifera por comportamiento y producción de miel en agroecosistemas de Tabasco, México. Ecosistemas Recur. Agropecu. 10, 1–15 (2023).
Garreaud, R. D., Vuille, M., Compagnucci, R. & Marengo, J. Present-day South American climate. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 281, 180–195 (2009).
Šeparović, L. et al. Present climate and climate change over North America as simulated by the fifth-generation Canadian regional climate model. Clim. Dyn. 41, 3167–3201 (2013).
Rinderer, T. E. & Hellmich, R. L. The Processes of Africanization. In The African Honey Bee (eds Rinderer, T. E. & Hellmich, R. L.) (CRC Press, 1991).
Sheppard, W. S. & Smith, D. R. Identification of African-derived bees in the Americas: A survey of methods. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 93, 159–176 (2000).
Daly, H. V., Hoelmer, K., Norman, P. & Allen, T. Computer-assisted measurement and identification of honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 75, 591–594 (1982).
Rinderer, T. E. et al. Morphometric identification of Africanized and European honey bees using large reference populations. Apidologie 24, 569–585 (1993).
Rinderer, T. E. et al. Field and simplified techniques for identifying Africanized and European honey bees. Field Simpl. Tech. Identify. Afr. Eur. Honey Bees 17, 33–48 (1986).
Rinderer, T. E. et al. Improved simple techniques for identifying Africanized and European honey bees. Apidologie 18, 179–196 (1987).
Calfee, E., Agra, M. N., Palacio, M. A., Ramírez, S. R. & Coop, G. Selection and hybridization shaped the rapid spread of African honey bee ancestry in the Americas. PLoS Genet. 16, e1009038 (2020).
Düttmann, C. et al. Africanized honeybee population (Apis mellifera L.) in Nicaragua: Forewing length and mitotype lineages. PLoS ONE 17, e0267600 (2022).
Francoy, T. M. et al. Identification of Africanized honey bees through wing morphometrics: two fast and efficient procedures. Apidologie 39, 488–494 (2008).
Tofilski, A. Using geometric morphometrics and standard morphometry to discriminate three honeybee subspecies. Apidologie 39, 558–563 (2008).
Eimanifar, A., Brooks, S. A., Bustamante, T. & Ellis, J. D. Population genomics and morphometric assignment of western honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in the Republic of South Africa. BMC Genom. 19, 615 (2018).
Henriques, D. et al. Wing geometric morphometrics of workers and drones and single nucleotide polymorphisms provide similar genetic structure in the iberian honey bee (Apis mellifera iberiensis). Insects 11, 89 (2020).
Oleksa, A. & Tofilski, A. Wing geometric morphometrics and microsatellite analysis provide similar discrimination of honey bee subspecies. Apidologie 46, 49–60 (2015).
Hall, H. G. & Smith, D. R. Distinguishing African and European honeybee matrilines using amplified mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 88, 4548–4552 (1991).
Pinto, M. A. et al. Identification of Africanized honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Mitochondrial DNA: Validation of a rapid polymerase chain reaction-based assay. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 96, 679–684 (2003).
Szalanski, A. & Tripodi, A. Assessing the utility of a PCR diagnostics marker for the identification of Africanized honey bee, Apis mellifera L., (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in the United States. Sociobiology 61, 234–236 (2014).
Rangel, J. et al. Africanization of a feral honey bee (Apis mellifera) population in South Texas: does a decade make a difference?. Ecol. Evol. 6, 2158–2169 (2016).
Chapman, N. C. et al. A SNP test to identify Africanized honeybees via proportion of ‘African’ ancestry. Mol. Ecol. Resour. 15, 1346–1355 (2015).
Chapman, N. C. et al. An abbreviated SNP panel for ancestry assignment of honeybees (Apis mellifera). Apidologie 48, 776–783 (2017).
Nawrocka, A., Kandemir, İ, Fuchs, S. & Tofilski, A. Computer software for identification of honey bee subspecies and evolutionary lineages. Apidologie 49, 172–184 (2018).
Calfee, E., Agra, M., Palacio, M. A., Ramírez, S. & Coop, G. Apis mellifera wing images (Africanized honey bees). Bytes Dryad https://doi.org/10.25338/B8T032 (2020).
Masaquiza, D. et al. Geometric morphometric analysis of wing shape to identify populations of Apis mellifera in Camagüey, Cuba. Insects 14, 306 (2023).
Masaquiza, D. & Arenal, A. Collection of images and raw coordinates of honey bee (Apis mellifera) wings from the central highlands of Ecuador. (2024).
Adams, D. C. & Otárola-Castillo, E. geomorph: an r package for the collection and analysis of geometric morphometric shape data. Methods Ecol. Evol. 4, 393–399 (2013).
Scrucca, L., Fop, M., Murphy, T. B. & Raftery, A. E. mclust 5: Clustering, classification and density estimation using gaussian finite mixture models. R J. 8, 289–317 (2016).
Kaur, H., Ganie, S. A. & Tofilski, A. Morphometric identification of an unknown honey bee colony: an example from north India. J. Apic. Sci. https://doi.org/10.2478/JAS-2024-0013 (2024).
Klingenberg, C. P. & Monteiro, L. R. Distances and directions in multidimensional shape spaces: Implications for morphometric applications. Syst. Biol. 54, 678–688 (2005).
Rinderer, T. E. et al. Morphometric differences among Africanized and European honey bees and their F1 hybrids (Hymenoptera: Apidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 83, 346–351 (1990).
Węgrzynowicz, P., Gerula, D., Tofilski, A., Panasiuk, B. & Bieńkowska, M. Maternal inheritance in hybrids of three honey bee subspecies. J. Apic. Sci. 63, 131–138 (2019).
Acevedo-Gonzalez, J. P. et al. Colonization history and population differentiation of the honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in Puerto Rico. Ecol. Evol. 9, 10895–10902 (2019).
Donthu, R. et al. HBeeID: a molecular tool that identifies honey bee subspecies from different geographic populations. BMC Bioinform. 25, 278 (2024).
Everitt, T. et al. The genomic basis of adaptation to high elevations in Africanized honey bees. Genome Biol. Evol. 15, evad157 (2023).
Galindo-Cardona, A., Acevedo-Gonzalez, J. P., Rivera-Marchand, B. & Giray, T. Genetic structure of the gentle Africanized honey bee population (gAHB) in Puerto Rico. BMC Genet. 14, 65 (2013).
Nelson, R. M., Wallberg, A., Simões, Z. L. P., Lawson, D. J. & Webster, M. T. Genomewide analysis of admixture and adaptation in the Africanized honeybee. Mol. Ecol. 26, 3603–3617 (2017).
Ohta, T. & Kimura, M. Linkage disequilibrium at steady state determined by random genetic drift and recurrent mutation. Genetics 63, 229–238 (1969).
Oleksa, A., Kusza, S. & Tofilski, A. Mitochondrial DNA suggests the introduction of honeybees of African ancestry to east-central Europe. Insects 12, 410 (2021).
Daly, H. V. & Balling, S. S. Identification of Africanized Honeybees in the Western hemisphere by discriminant analysis. J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 51, 857–869 (1978).
